Zvirwere zvisati zvaparadza zvirwere zvinosvika mabhiriyoni matatu kana kupfuura, muti uyu wakabatsira kuvaka America ine maindasitiri. Kuti tidzorere kubwinya kwayo kwakarasika, tingangoda kugamuchira nekugadzirisa zvisikwa.
Pane imwe nguva muna 1989, Herbert Darling akagamuchira runhare: Muvhimi akamuudza kuti akanga asangana nemuti murefu wekuAmerica wechestnut panzvimbo yaDarling muZor Valley kumadokero kweNew York. Darling aiziva kuti chestnut yaimbova imwe yemiti yakakosha munzvimbo iyi. Aizivawo kuti howa inouraya yakapotsa yaparadza rudzi urwu kweanopfuura zana remakore nehafu. Paakanzwa mushumo wemuvhimi wekuona chestnut mhenyu, hunde yechestnut yakanga yakareba mamita maviri uye yakasvika pachivako chine nhurikidzwa shanu, akakahadzika nazvo. "Handizive kana ndichifunga kuti anoziva kuti chii," akadaro Darling.
Darling paakawana muti uyu, zvakaita sekunge akatarisa chifananidzo chengano. Akati: “Zvaive zvakananga uye zvakakwana kugadzira muenzaniso - zvaive zvakanaka kwazvo.” Asi Darling akaonawo kuti muti uyu waive wava kufa. Kubva pakutanga kwema1900, wakabatwa nedenda rimwe chete, iro rinofungidzirwa kuti rakakonzera kufa kwevanhu mabhiriyoni matatu kana kupfuura nezvirwere zvakadaro. Ichi ndicho chirwere chekutanga chinokonzerwa nevanhu chinonyanya kuparadza miti munhoroondo yemazuva ano. Darling akafunga kuti, dai asina kukwanisa kuponesa muti iwoyo, aizochengetedza mbeu dzawo. Pane dambudziko rimwe chete: muti uyu hausi kuita chero chinhu nekuti hapana mimwe miti yechestnut iri pedyo inogona kuupa mbesa.
Darling iinjiniya anoshandisa nzira dzeinjiniya kugadzirisa matambudziko. Muna Chikumi akatevera, apo maruva eyero yakachenuruka akapararira pamusoro pemuti wegirini, Darling akazadza mabara neupfu hwepfuti, hwakatorwa kubva kumaruva emurume emumwe muti wechestnut waakanga adzidza, ndokutyaira akananga kuchamhembe. Zvakatora awa nehafu. Akapfura muti kubva muherikoputa yaakahaya. (Ane kambani yekuvaka inobudirira inokwanisa kutenga zvinhu zvakawanda.) Kuedza uku kwakakundikana. Gore rakatevera, Darling akaedzazve. Panguva ino, iye nemwanakomana wake vakadhonza scaffolding kuenda kumachestnut pamusoro pegomo ndokuvaka chikuva chakareba mamita makumi maviri mumavhiki anopfuura maviri. Mudiwa wangu akakwira pamusoro pedenga ndokukwesha maruva nemaruva akaita sehonye pane mumwe muti wechestnut.
Mumatsutso iwoyo, matavi emuti waDarling akabereka tsinga dzakafukidzwa neminzwa yegirini. Minzwa iyi yaive yakakora uye yakapinza zvekuti inogona kufungidzirwa kuti cacti. Goho harisi rakawanda, kune nzungu dzinosvika zana, asi Darling akadyara dzimwe uye akaisa tariro. Iye neshamwari yake vakataurawo naCharles Maynard naWilliam Powell, nyanzvi mbiri dzemiti paState University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry muSyracuse (Chuck naBill vakafa). Munguva pfupi yapfuura vakatanga chirongwa chekutsvagisa chestnut chisina bhajeti rakawanda ikoko. Darling akavapa chestnut ndokubvunza masayendisiti kana vaigona kuishandisa kuti vadzose. Darling akati: “Ichi chinoita sechinhu chakanaka.” “Kumabvazuva kweUnited States yese.” Zvisinei, makore mashoma gare gare, muti wake wakafa.
Kubva pavakatanga kugara muNorth America, nyaya yemasango ekondinendi yave kurasikirwa zvikuru. Zvisinei, chirongwa chaDarling ikozvino chinoonekwa nevakawanda seimwe yemikana inovimbisa yekutanga kugadzirisa nyaya iyi - pakutanga kwegore rino, Templeton World Charity Foundation yakaisa chirongwa chaMaynard naPowell's The project kupa nhoroondo yayo yakawanda, uye kuedza uku kwakakwanisa kuputsa basa diki rakadhura mari inodarika mamiriyoni matatu emadhora. Chaive chipo chikuru pane zvese zvakambopihwa kuyunivhesiti. Tsvagiridzo yevanoongorora majini inomanikidza vanoongorora zvakatipoteredza kutarisana netariro nenzira itsva uye dzimwe nguva isina kugadzikana, iyo kugadzirisa nyika yechisikigo hazvirevi kuti zvinodzokera kuBindu reEdheni rakazara. Asi, zvinogona kureva kugamuchira basa ratakatora: mainjiniya wezvinhu zvese kusanganisira zvisikwa.
Mashizha emuti weChestnut marefu uye ane mazino, uye anotaridzika semashizha maviri madiki egirini akabatana kumashure nepakati petsinga yeshizha. Kune rimwe divi, mashizha maviri akabatana nedzinde. Kune rimwe divi, anoumba muromo wakapinza, unowanzo kotama kurutivi. Chimiro ichi chisingatarisirwi chinocheka nepakati pemadutu egirini nejecha musango, uye fungidziro inoshamisa yevanofamba-famba yakamutsa pfungwa dzevanhu, ichivayeuchidza nezverwendo rwavo nemusango raimbova nemiti yakawanda ine simba.
Nemabhuku nekurangarira chete tinogona kunzwisisa miti iyi zvizere. Lucille Griffin, mukuru weAmerican Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, akambonyora kuti ipapo uchaona machestnuts akapfuma zvekuti muchirimo, maruva ane ruvara rwakaita semafungu ane furo aifamba achidzika mugomo, zvichikonzera ndangariro dzasekuru. Mumatsutso, muti wacho unoputika zvakare, panguva ino uine maburrs anobaya achivhara kutapira. "Machestnuts paakanga aibva, ndakaunganidza hafu yebushel muchando," Thoreau akanyora mu "Walden." "Mumwaka iwoyo, zvaifadza zvikuru kufamba-famba musango remachestnuts risingaperi muLincoln panguva iyoyo."
Nzungu dzemuouki dzinovimbika zvikuru. Kusiyana nemiti yemuouki inodonhedza maacorn chete mumakore mashoma, miti yemuouki inobereka zvirimwa zvakawanda zvenzungu mumatsutso ega ega. Nzungu dzemuouki dziri nyorewo kugayiwa: unogona kudzibvisa wodya mbishi. (Edza kushandisa maacorn akapfuma mu tannins - kana kuti usazviite.) Munhu wese anodya machestnut: mhembwe, tsindi, bere, shiri, munhu. Varimi vanorega nguruve dzavo vowana mafuta musango. Munguva yeKisimusi, zvitima zvakazara nemachestnut zvaifamba kubva kumakomo zvichienda kuguta. Ehe, zvakapiswa nemoto mukuru. "Zvinonzi mune dzimwe nzvimbo, varimi vanowana mari yakawanda kubva mukutengeswa kwemachestnut kupfuura zvimwe zvigadzirwa zvese zvekurima," akadaro William L. Bray, mukuru wekutanga wechikoro chakazoshanda Maynard naPowell. Yakanyorwa muna 1915. Ndiwo muti wevanhu, uyo vazhinji vavo vanokura musango.
Inopawo zvinopfuura chikafu chete. Miti yechestnut inogona kukwira kusvika pamamita 120, uye mamita ekutanga makumi mashanu haavhiringidzwi nemapazi kana mapfundo. Uku ndiko kurota kwevanochera matanda. Kunyangwe isiri huni yakanaka kwazvo kana kuti yakasimba, inokura nekukurumidza, kunyanya kana ichimerazve mushure mekuchekwa uye isingaori. Sezvo kugara kwenguva refu kwezvisungo zvechitima nematanda efoni zvakapfuura runako, Chestnut yakabatsira kuvaka America ine maindasitiri. Zviuru zvematura, makabhini nemachechi akagadzirwa nechestnut zvichiripo; munyori muna 1915 akafungidzira kuti iyi ndiyo mhando yemiti yakatemwa zvakanyanya muUnited States.
Munzvimbo zhinji dzekumabvazuva - miti inotangira kuMississippi kusvika kuMaine, uye kubva kumahombekombe eAtlantic kusvika kuRwizi rweMississippi - miti yechestnuts ndeimwewo yayo. Asi muAppalachians, yaive muti mukuru. Mabhiriyoni emiti yechestnut anogara mumakomo aya.
Zvakakodzera kuti Fusarium wilt itange kuonekwa muNew York, inova ndiyo nzira yekusvika kuAmerica vazhinji. Muna 1904, hutachiona husinganzwisisike hwakawanikwa pamuti wechestnut uri munjodzi muBronx Zoo. Vaongorori vakakurumidza kuona kuti howa hwakakonzera chirwere chebhakitiriya (yakazonzi Cryphonectria parasitica) hwakasvika pamiti yeJapan yakatorwa kubva kunze kwenyika muna 1876. (Panowanzova nenguva pakati pekuuya kwerudzi uye kuwanikwa kwezvinetso zviri pachena.)
Munguva pfupi vanhu mumatunhu akati wandei vakataura kuti miti yave kufa. Muna 1906, William A. Murrill, nyanzvi yezvirwere zvemhuka kuNew York Botanical Garden, akaburitsa chinyorwa chekutanga chesainzi nezvechirwere ichi. Muriel akataura kuti howa iyi inokonzera hutachiona hwemabhurugwa eruvara rweyero-brown pamuti wechestnut, izvo zvinoita kuti ucheneswe wakakomberedza hunde. Kana zvinovaka muviri nemvura zvisisakwanise kuyerera zvichikwira nekudzika mumidziyo yemakwati iri pasi pemuti, zvese zviri pamusoro pedenderedzwa rerufu zvinofa.
Vamwe vanhu havagoni kufungidzira - kana kuti havadi kuti vamwe vafungidzire - muti unonyangarika musango. Muna 1911, Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, kambani yekireshi muPennsylvania, yaitenda kuti chirwere ichi "chaipfuura kungotya chete." Kuvapo kwenguva refu kwevatori venhau vasina hanya. Purazi rakavharwa muna 1913. Makore maviri apfuura, Pennsylvania yakaunganidza komiti yezvirwere zvechestnut, yakabvumidzwa kushandisa US$275,000 (mari yakawanda panguva iyoyo), uye yakazivisa simba rekutora matanho ekurwisa kurwadziwa uku, kusanganisira kodzero yekuparadza miti papfuma yemunhu. Nyanzvi dzezvirwere dzinokurudzira kubvisa miti yese yechestnut iri makiromita mashoma kubva pamberi pehutachiona hukuru kuti dzive nemhedzisiro yekudzivirira moto. Asi zvakazoitika kuti howa iyi inogona kusvetukira pamiti isina hutachiona, uye spores dzayo dzinotapukirwa nemhepo, shiri, zvipembenene nevanhu. Chirongwa chakasiyiwa.
Pakazosvika 1940, hapana kana shiri hombe dzemumachestnut dzakabatwa nechirwere ichi. Nhasi uno, kukosha kwemari inosvika mabhiriyoni emadhora kwapera. Sezvo fusarium wilt isingakwanise kurarama muvhu, midzi yechestnut inoramba ichikura, uye inopfuura mamiriyoni mazana mana ichiripo musango. Zvisinei, Fusarium wilt yakawana dziva mumuti wemuouki kwawaigara pasina kukonzera kukuvara kukuru kune mhuka yacho. Kubva ipapo, inokurumidza kupararira kusvika kumabukira matsva echestnut uye inoadzosera pasi, kazhinji nguva refu isati yasvika padanho rekutumbuka.
Indasitiri yematanda yawana dzimwe nzira: oak, pine, walnut, uye dota. Kutema ganda, imwe indasitiri huru inoshandisa miti yechestnut, yachinja kuita zvigadzirwa zvekugadzira ganda. Kune varimi vazhinji varombo, hapana chekuchinja: hapana mumwe muti wemuno unopa varimi nemhuka dzavo macalorie nemapuroteni emahara, akavimbika uye akawanda. Kuora kwechestnut kunogona kunzi kunogumisa tsika yakajairika yekurima kweAppalachian kuzviriritira, zvichimanikidza vanhu munharaunda iyi kuti vave nesarudzo iri pachena: kuenda kumugodhi wemarasha kana kutama. Munyori wenhoroondo Donald Davis akanyora muna 2005 kuti: “Nekuda kwekufa kwechestnut, nyika yese yafa, ichibvisa tsika dzekurarama dzave dziripo mumakomo eAppalachian kweanopfuura mazana mana emakore.”
Powell akakurira kure neAppalachians neChestnuts. Baba vake vakashanda muAir Force ndokutamira kumhuri yavo: Indiana, Florida, Germany, nemhenderekedzo yekumabvazuva yeMaryland. Kunyangwe vakapedza basa ravo kuNew York, hurukuro dzavo dzakaramba dzakajeka sedzeMidwest uye rusaruro rwakavanzika asi rwunoonekwa rweSouth. Maitiro ake akareruka uye maitiro ake ekusona anowirirana, aine majini ane hembe dzakarukwa dzisingaperi. Anonyanya kufarira kutaura ndeekuti "wow".
Powell anoronga kuva chiremba wemhuka kusvika purofesa wezvemajini amuvimbisa tariro yekurima kutsva, kurima kwakavakirwa pamiti yakagadziriswa majini iyo inogona kugadzira kugona kwayo kudzivirira zvipembenene nezvirwere. "Ndakafunga kuti, hazvina kunaka kugadzira zvirimwa zvinogona kuzvidzivirira kubva kuzvipembenene, uye haufanirwe kupfapfaidza mishonga yezvipembenene pairi?" Powell akadaro. "Ehe, nyika yese haiteveri pfungwa imwechete."
Powell paakasvika pachikoro chedzidzo yepamusoro cheUtah State University muna 1983, haana kunetseka nazvo. Zvisinei, akapinda murabhoritari yenyanzvi yezvebhayoloji, uye aishanda pahutachiona hwaigona kuomesa fungus. Kuedza kwavo kushandisa hutachiona uhwu hakuna kufamba zvakanaka: hauna kupararira kubva pamuti kuenda kune mumwe muti wega, saka hwaifanira kugadziriswa kuti huenderane nemhando dzakawanda dzefungus. Pasinei neizvi, Powell akafadzwa nenyaya yemuti mukuru wakadonha pasi uye akapa mhinduro yesainzi yekuitika kwezvikanganiso zvinosuruvarisa zvakagadzirwa nevanhu. Akati: "Nekuda kwekusatarisirwa zvakanaka kwezvinhu zvedu zvaifamba-famba pasi rese, takaunza hutachiona netsaona." "Ndakafunga kuti: Wow, izvi zvinonakidza. Pane mukana wekudzosa."
Powell akanga asiri iye wekutanga kuedza kubvisa kurasikirwa. Mushure mekunge zvave pachena kuti miti yeAmerican chestnut yaizokundikana, USDA yakaedza kudyara miti yeChinese chestnut, iyo inodzivirira kusvava, kuti inzwisise kana rudzi urwu ruchigona kutsiva miti yeAmerican chestnut. Zvisinei, miti yeChestnut inokura zvakanyanya kunze, uye yakafanana nemiti yemichero kupfuura miti yemichero. Yakanga yapfupika musango nemiti yemiouki nedzimwe hofori dzeAmerica. Kukura kwayo kunovharirwa, kana kuti inongofa. Masayendisiti akaedzawo kubereka miti yeChestnut kubva kuUnited States neChina pamwe chete, vachitarisira kugadzira muti une hunhu hwakanaka hwezvose zviri zviviri. Kuedza kwehurumende kwakakundikana uye kwakaregwa.
Powell akazoshanda paState University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry, kwaakasangana naChuck Maynard, nyanzvi yezvemajini akadyara miti murabhoritari. Makore mashoma apfuura, masayendisiti akagadzira tissue yekutanga yezvirimwa zvakagadziriswa majini - achiwedzera gene rinopa simba rekurwisa mabhakitiriya kufodya kuti zvionekwe kwete kushandiswa mukutengeserana. Maynard (Maynard) akatanga kushandisa tekinoroji itsva, achitsvaga tekinoroji inobatsira ine chekuita nayo. Panguva iyoyo, Darling aive nembeu nedambudziko: kugadzirisa machestnut ekuAmerica.
Muzviuru zvemakore ekurima zvirimwa zvechinyakare, varimi (nevasayendisiti vemazuva ano) vakasanganisa mhando dzakasiyana-siyana dzine hunhu hwavanoda. Zvadaro, majini anosanganiswa pamwe chete, uye vanhu vanosarudza misanganiswa inovimbisa kuti ive yemhando yepamusoro-yakakura, inonaka kana kuti isingarwari nezvirwere. Kazhinji, zvinotora zvizvarwa zvinoverengeka kugadzira chigadzirwa. Maitiro aya anononoka uye anovhiringidza zvishoma. Darling akashamisika kana nzira iyi yaizobereka muti wakanaka semusango rake. Akandiudza kuti: "Ndinofunga kuti tinogona kuita zviri nani."
Kugadzira majini zvinoreva kutonga kukuru: kunyangwe kana jini rakati richibva kurudzi rusina hukama, rinogona kusarudzwa nechinangwa chakati uye kuiswa mujini rechimwe chipenyu. (Zvipenyu zvine majini kubva kumarudzi akasiyana "zvinogadziriswa majini." Munguva pfupi yapfuura, masayendisiti akagadzira matekiniki ekugadzirisa zvakananga genome yezvipenyu zvinotarirwa.) Iyi tekinoroji inovimbisa kunyatsojeka uye kumhanya kusati kwamboitika. Powell anotenda kuti izvi zvinoita sekunge zvakakodzera kwazvo kune chestnut dzekuAmerica, dzaanoti "miti inenge yakakwana" - dzakasimba, dzakareba, uye dzakapfuma mune zvekudya, dzinoda kugadziriswa kwakananga chete: kuramba chirwere chebhakitiriya.
Ndinobvumirana newe. Akati: “Tinofanira kuva nemainjiniya mubhizinesi redu.” “Kubva pakuvaka kusvika pakuvaka, iyi ingori mhando ye automation.”
Powell naMaynard vanofungidzira kuti zvingatora makore gumi kuwana majini anopa simba rekudzivirira, kugadzira tekinoroji yekuwedzera majini aya ku chestnut genome, uye wozoakura. "Tiri kungofungidzira," akadaro Powell. "Hapana ane majini anopa simba rekudzivirira fungus. Takatanga tisina chinhu."
Darling akatsvaga rutsigiro kubva kuAmerican Chestnut Foundation, sangano risiri repurofiti rakavambwa kutanga kwema1980. Mutungamiriri waro akamuudza kuti akanga akarasika. Vakazvipira kusanganisa uye vanoramba vakangwarira nezvekugadzira majini, izvo zvakakonzera kushorwa kubva kune vanochengetedza zvakatipoteredza. Nokudaro, Darling akagadzira sangano rake risiri repurofiti kuti riwane mari yekushanda mukugadzira majini. Powell akati sangano rakanyorera Maynard naPowell cheki yekutanga yemadhora zviuru makumi matatu ($30,000). (Muna 1990, sangano renyika rakachinja uye rakagamuchira boka reDarling rekuzviparadzanisa sebazi raro rekutanga rehurumende, asi vamwe nhengo vakanga vachiri kusava nechokwadi kana kuti vaivenga zvachose mainjiniya ejini.)
Maynard naPowell vari kushanda. Nguva pfupi yadarika, nguva yavo yekufungidzira yakaratidza kuti haina kushanda. Chipingamupinyi chekutanga ndechekutsvaga nzira yekurima machestnut murabhoritari. Maynard akaedza kusanganisa mashizha echestnut nehormone yekukura mudhishi repurasitiki rakatenderera repetri, nzira inoshandiswa kukura mapoplar. Zvakazoonekwa kuti izvi hazvigoneki. Miti mitsva haizove nemidzi nemabukira kubva mumasero akasarudzika. Maynard akati: "Ndiri mutungamiriri wepasi rose mukuuraya miti yechestnut." Mumwe muongorori paYunivhesiti yeGeorgia, Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) pakupedzisira akadzidzisa Maynard maitiro ekubva pakubereka kusvika kune anotevera. Plant chestnut muma embryos padanho rekukura.
Kuwana jini rakakodzera - basa raPowell - kwakaratidzawo kuva kwakaoma. Akapedza makore akati wandei achitsvaga mushonga unorwisa mabhakitiriya wakavakirwa pamajini ematatya, asi akarega mushonga uyu nekuda kwekunetseka kuti veruzhinji vangasagamuchira miti ine matatya. Akatsvagawo jini rinodzivirira bhakitiriya muchestnut, asi akawana kuti kuchengetedza muti kunosanganisira majini akawanda (vakaona kanenge matanhatu). Zvadaro, muna 1997, mumwe waaishanda naye akadzoka kubva kumusangano wesainzi ndokunyora pfupiso nepfungwa. Powell akanyora musoro une musoro unoti "Kuratidzwa kweoxalate oxidase mumiti inochinja-chinja kunoita kuti pave nekusagadzikana kufungi inogadzira oxalate neoxalate". Kubva mukutsvagisa kwake hutachiona, Powell aiziva kuti wilt fungi inoburitsa oxalic acid kuuraya bark rechestnut uye kuita kuti zvive nyore kugaya. Powell akaona kuti kana chestnut ikakwanisa kugadzira oxalate oxidase yayo (puroteni yakakosha inogona kuputsa oxalate), saka inogona kukwanisa kuzvidzivirira. Akati: "Ndiyo nguva yangu yeEureka."
Zvinoonekwa kuti zvirimwa zvakawanda zvine jini rinozvigonesa kugadzira oxalate oxidase. Kubva kumuongorori akapa hurukuro, Powell akawana imwe mhando yegorosi. Mudzidzi wepayunivhesiti Linda Polin McGuigan akavandudza tekinoroji ye "gene gun" yekuburitsa majini mumaembryo echestnut, achitarisira kuti anogona kuiswa muDNA yeembryo. Jini rakagara kwenguva pfupi muembryo, asi rakazonyangarika. Chikwata chekutsvagisa chakasiya nzira iyi ndokuchinjira kubhakitiriya rakagadzira kare kare nzira yekubvisa DNA yezvimwe zvipenyu nekuisa majini azvo. Muzvisikwa, tupukanana tunowedzera majini anomanikidza mugari wemhuka kugadzira chikafu chebhakitiriya. Nyanzvi dzezvemajini dzakapinda mubhakitiriya uyu kuitira kuti ugone kuisa chero jini rinodiwa nesainzi. McGuigan akawana kugona kwekuwedzera majini egorosi nemapuroteni emamaki kumaembryo echestnut. Kana puroteni ikapiswa nemwaranzi pasi pemaikorosikopu, puroteni inoburitsa chiedza chegirini, zvichiratidza kuiswa kwakabudirira. (Chikwata chakakurumidza kurega kushandisa mapuroteni emamaki - hapana aida muti unogona kupenya.) Maynard akadana nzira iyi kuti "chinhu chakanakisa pasi rose."
Nekufamba kwenguva, Maynard naPowell vakavaka mutsetse wekugadzira chestnut, uyo zvino wava kusvika panhurikidzwa dzakasiyana dzechivako chinoshamisa chekutsvagisa masango chemakore ekuma1960, pamwe nenzvimbo itsva inopenya ye "Biotech Accelerator" iri kunze kwekampasi. Maitiro acho anosanganisira kusarudza maembryo anomera kubva mumasero akafanana nemajini (maembryo mazhinji akagadzirwa murabhoritari haaite izvi, saka hazvina basa kugadzira maclones) uye kuisa majini egorosi. Masero eEmbryonic, seagar, chinhu chakafanana nepudding chinotorwa kubva mualgae. Kuti vashandure embryo kuita muti, vaongorori vakawedzera mahormone ekukura. Mazana emidziyo yepurasitiki yakaita secube ine miti midiki yechestnut isina midzi inogona kuiswa pasherufu pasi perambi rine simba re fluorescent. Pakupedzisira, masayendisiti akashandisa mahormone emidzi, vakadyara miti yavo yekutanga muhari dzakazadzwa nevhu, uye vakaiisa mukamuri rekukura rinodzorwa nekupisa. Hazvishamisi kuti miti iri murabhoritari iri mumamiriro asina kunaka kunze. Nokudaro, vaongorori vakaibatanidza nemiti yemusango kuti vagadzire mienzaniso yakaoma asi ichiri kuramba yekuedzwa mumunda.
Mumwaka miviri yapfuura, Hannah Pilkey, mudzidzi wepayunivhesiti muPowell's lab, akandiratidza maitiro ekuita izvi. Akarima howa hunokonzera bhakitiriya mundiro diki yepurasitiki yepetri. Muchimiro ichi chakavharwa, chirwere cheorenji chakachenuruka chinoita sechisina njodzi uye chakanaka. Zvakaoma kufungidzira kuti ndicho chinokonzera kufa nekuparadza kwevanhu vazhinji.
Twiza iri pasi yakapfugama pasi, ikanyora chiratidzo chechikamu chidiki chemamirimita mashanu, yakacheka katatu nemazvo neganda remusana, ndokuzora ronda racho nepurasitiki. Yakazvivhara nepurasitiki. Yakati: “Zvakafanana nebhandi.” Sezvo uyu uri muti "usingadziviriri", inotarisira kuti hutachiona hweorenji hupararire nekukurumidza kubva panzvimbo yekubaiwa uye pakupedzisira hutenderedza madzinde madiki. Yakandiratidza mimwe miti yaiva nemajini egorosi ayakamborapa kare. Utachiona hunogumira pakuchekwa, senge miromo mitete yeorenji iri pedyo nemuromo mudiki.
Muna 2013, Maynard naPowell vakazivisa kubudirira kwavo muTransgenic Research: makore zana nemapfumbamwe mushure mekuwanikwa kwechirwere cheAmerican chestnut, vakagadzira Miti inoita seyekuzvidzivirira, kunyangwe ikarwiswa nefungus yakawanda inosvava. Mukuremekedza mupi wavo wekutanga uye ane rupo, akaisa mari inosvika $250,000, uye vaongorori vanga vachitumidza miti zita rake. Iyi inonzi Darling 58.
Musangano wepagore weNew York Chapter weAmerican Chestnut Foundation wakaitirwa muhotera iri kunze kweNew Paltz musi weMugovera wemvura muna Gumiguru 2018. Vanhu vanosvika makumi mashanu vakaungana pamwe chete. Musangano uyu waive musangano wesainzi uye mumwe musangano wekuchinjana chestnut. Kumashure kwekamuri kadiki kemusangano, nhengo dzakachinjana mabhegi eZiploc azere nenzungu. Musangano uyu waive wekutanga mumakore makumi maviri nemasere kuti Darling kana Maynard vasapinde. Matambudziko ehutano akavadzivisa vese. "Tave tichiita izvi kwenguva yakareba, uye gore rega rega tinonyarara nekuda kwevakafa," Allen Nichols, purezidhendi wekirabhu, akandiudza. Kunyange zvakadaro, mafungiro achiri netariro: muti wakagadziriswa majini wapfuura makore ekuyedzwa kwakaoma kwekuchengetedza uye kushanda zvakanaka.
Nhengo dzechitsauko dzakapa sumo yakadzama pamusoro pemamiriro emuti mumwe nemumwe mukuru wechestnut unogara muNew York State. Pilkey nevamwe vadzidzi vakapedza kudzidza vakatanga nzira yekuunganidza nekuchengetedza mukume, nzira yekurima makume pasi pemwenje yemukati, uye nzira yekuzadza ivhu nehutachiona hwemapundu kuti miti irarame kwenguva refu. Vanhu vakadya macashew, vazhinji vavo vachidyara nekukudza miti yavo, vakabvunza masayendisiti madiki mibvunzo.
Bowell akapfeka pasi, akapfeka yunifomu isina kurongeka yechitsauko chino: shati ine mutsipa yakaputirwa mubhurugwa remajini. Kutsvaga kwake kwaakaita basa remakore makumi matatu kwakarongeka zvichienderana nechinangwa chaHerb Darling chekuwanazve chestnuts - hakuwanzoitika pakati pevasayendisiti vedzidzo, avo vanowanzoita tsvakurudzo mumakore mashanu ekubhadhara mari, uye ipapo mhedzisiro yacho inopihwa kune vamwe kuti vatengese. Don Leopold, mumwe waanoshanda naye muDhipatimendi reSainzi yeMasango neMasango rePowell, akandiudza kuti: "Anonyatsoteerera uye ane hunhu." "Anopfeka machira. Haavhiringidzwi nezvimwe zvinhu zvakawanda. Pakazosvika nguva yekutsvaga, vatungamiriri veState University of New York (SUNY) vakamubata ndokukumbira patent yemuti wake kuitira kuti yunivhesiti ibatsirwe nayo, asi Powell akaramba. Akati miti yakagadziriswa majini yakafanana nechestnuts yekare uye inoshandira vanhu. Vanhu vaPowell vari mukamuri iri.
Asi akavayambira kuti: Mushure mekukunda zvipingamupinyi zvakawanda zvehunyanzvi, miti yakagadziriswa majini inogona kusangana nedambudziko guru: hurumende yeUS. Mavhiki mashoma apfuura, Powell akaendesa faira remapeji anoda kusvika 3,000 kuUS Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, iyo ine basa rekubvumidza miti yakagadziriswa majini. Izvi zvinotanga maitiro ekubvumidza kwesangano: kudzokorora chikumbiro, kukumbira pfungwa dzeveruzhinji, kuburitsa chirevo chekukanganisa nharaunda, kukumbira pfungwa dzeveruzhinji zvakare uye kuita sarudzo. Basa iri rinogona kutora makore akati wandei. Kana pasina sarudzo, chirongwa ichi chinogona kumira. (Nguva yekutanga yekutaura kweveruzhinji haisati yavhurwa.)
Vaongorori vanoronga kuendesa zvimwe zvikumbiro kuFood and Drug Administration kuitira kuti ikwanise kutarisa kuchengetedzeka kwechikafu chenzungu dzakagadziriswa majini, uye Environmental Protection Agency ichaongorora kukanganisa kwemuti uyu nharaunda pasi peMutemo weFederal Pesticide, unodiwa kune zvese zvinomera zvakagadziriswa majini zve. "Izvi zvakaoma kupfuura sainzi!" akadaro mumwe munhu ari muvateereri.
“Hongu.” Powell akabvuma. “Sainzi inonakidza. Zvinonetsa.” (Akazondiudza gare gare kuti: “Kutarisirwa nemasangano matatu akasiyana kwakanyanyisa. Zvinouraya hunyanzvi mukuchengetedza zvakatipoteredza.”)
Kuti varatidze kuti muti wavo wakachengeteka, timu yaPowell yakaita bvunzo dzakasiyana-siyana. Vakapa nyuchi oxalate oxidase. Vakayera kukura kwefungus inobatsira muvhu. Vakasiya mashizha mumvura uye vakaongorora simba rawo pa t. Hapana migumisiro yakaipa yakaonekwa mune chero chidzidzo - kutaura chokwadi, kushanda kwekudya kwakagadziriswa majini kuri nani pane mashizha emimwe miti isina kugadziriswa. Masayendisiti akatumira nzungu kuOak Ridge National Laboratory nedzimwe nzvimbo dzekurapa muTennessee kuti dziongororwe, uye havana kuwana mutsauko nenzungu dzakagadzirwa nemiti isina kugadziriswa.
Mhedzisiro yakadaro inogona kunyaradza vatongi. Hazvizombofadzi vatsigiri vanopikisa GMOs. John Dougherty, musayendisiti akarega basa kubva kuMonsanto, akapa mabasa ekubvunza kuna Powell mahara. Akadana vavengi ava kuti "vanopikisa." Kwemakumi emakore, masangano ezvakatipoteredza ave achinyevera kuti kufambisa majini pakati pemarudzi ane hukama huri kure kuchava nemigumisiro isingatarisirwi, yakadai sekugadzira "sora guru" rinopfuura zvirimwa zvechisikigo, kana kuunza majini ekunze anogona kukonzera mukana wekuchinja kwakakuvadza muDNA yemhando iyi. Vanonetsekawo kuti makambani anoshandisa genetic engineering kuti awane patents uye kudzora zvisikwa.
Parizvino, Powell akati haana kugamuchira mari zvakananga kubva kumakambani, uye akasimbirira kuti mari yekupa ku laboratori "haina kusungwa." Zvisinei, Brenda Jo McManama, murongi wesangano rinonzi "Indigenous Environmental Network", akataura chibvumirano muna 2010 umo Monsanto yakapa Chestnut Foundation nesangano rayo rekubatana naro New York The chapter mvumo yemapatenti maviri ekuchinja majini. (Powell akati mipiro yemakambani, kusanganisira Monsanto, isingasviki 4% yemari yayo yese yebasa.) McManama anofungidzira kuti Monsanto (yakatorwa neBayer muna 2018) iri kutsvaga patent muchivande nekutsigira zvinoita sekunge iteration yemuti mune ramangwana. purojekiti isina udyire. "Monsan yakaipa chose," akadaro pachena.
Powell akati patent iri muchibvumirano cha2010 yapera, uye nekuburitsa pachena ruzivo rwemuti wake mumabhuku esainzi, akave nechokwadi chekuti muti haugone kupihwa patent. Asi akaona kuti izvi hazvingabvisi kunetseka kwese. Akati, "Ndinoziva kuti mumwe munhu angati uri chirauro cheMonsanto." "Ungaitei? Hapana chaunogona kuita."
Makore angangoita mashanu apfuura, vatungamiriri veAmerican Chestnut Foundation vakagumisa kuti vaisagona kuzadzisa zvinangwa zvavo nekusanganisa chete, saka vakabvuma chirongwa chePowell chekugadzira majini. Sarudzo iyi yakakonzera kusawirirana. MunaKurume 2019, purezidhendi weMassachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter of the Foundation, Lois Breault-Melican, akasiya basa, achipa pfungwa yeGlobal Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), sangano rinorwisa magene engineering riri muBuffalo. Justice Ecology Project); murume wake Denis Melican akasiyawo bhodhi. Dennis akandiudza kuti vaviri ava vainyanya kunetseka kuti machestnut aPowell angave "Trojan horse", izvo zvakavhura nzira yekuti mimwe miti yekutengeserana iwedzere simba kuburikidza nekugadzira majini.
Susan Offutt, nyanzvi yezvehupfumi mukurima, anoshanda sachigaro weNational Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Committee, iyo yakaita tsvakiridzo pamusoro pe biotechnology yemasango muna 2018. Akataura kuti maitiro ehurumende ekutonga anotarisa panyaya yakamanikana yenjodzi dzezvipenyu, uye haana kumbobvira afunga nezvezvinetso zvakawanda zvevanhu, zvakaita seizvo zvakamutswa nevanorwisa GMO. "Ndeipi kukosha kwesango?" akabvunza, semuenzaniso wedambudziko, maitiro acho haana kugadziriswa. "Masango ane zvakanakira here? Tine mutoro wekufunga nezvazvo patinoita sarudzo dzekupindira?"
Masayendisiti mazhinji andakataura navo haana chikonzero chekunetseka nezvemiti yaPowell, nekuti sango rakakuvara zvakanyanya: matanda emiti, migodhi, budiriro, uye huwandu husingaperi hwezvipembenene nezvirwere zvinoparadza miti. Pakati pazvo, kuonda kwechestnut kwakaratidzwa kuva mhemberero yekuvhura. "Tinogara tichiunza zvipenyu zvitsva zvakakwana," akadaro Gary Lovett, nyanzvi yezvekuchengetedza masango paCary Ecosystem Institute muMillbrook, New York. "Mhedzisiro yechestnut dzakagadziriswa majini idiki zvikuru."
Donald Waller, nyanzvi yezvekuchengetedza masango achangobva pamudyandigere paYunivhesiti yeWisconsin-Madison, akaenderera mberi. Akandiudza kuti: “Kune rumwe rutivi, ndinotsanangura kuenzana pakati penjodzi nemubayiro. Kune rumwe rutivi, ndinoramba ndichitarisa njodzi.” Muti uyu wakagadziriswa majini unogona kutyisidzira musango. Kusiyana neizvi, “peji riri pasi pemubayiro iri kungozara neinki.” Akati chestnut inoramba kusvava pakupedzisira ichakunda sango iri rakapindwa nechando. Vanhu vanoda tariro. Vanhu vanoda zviratidzo.”
Powell anowanzo gara akadzikama, asi vanhu vasina chokwadi nezvemajini vanogona kumuvhundutsa. Akati: “Hazvina musoro kwandiri.” “Hazvina kubva pasainzi.” Kana mainjiniya vachigadzira mota kana mafoni ari nani, hapana anonyunyuta, saka anoda kuziva kuti chii chiri kunetsa nemiti yakagadzirwa zviri nani. “Ichi chishandiso chinogona kubatsira,” akadaro Powell. “Sei muchiti hatigone kushandisa chishandiso ichi? Tinogona kushandisa sikurudhiraivha yePhillips, asi kwete sikurudhiraivha yakajairika, uye zvinopesana?”
Pakutanga kwaGumiguru 2018, ndakaenda naPowell kuchiteshi chepasi chemvura chiri kumaodzanyemba kweSyracuse. Aitarisira kuti ramangwana remhando dzechestnut dzekuAmerica raizokura. Nzvimbo iyi yava kuda kusiyiwa isina vanhu, uye ndeimwe yenzvimbo shoma dzinobvumirwa kukura miti. Minda mirefu yepine nelarch, chibereko chechirongwa chekutsvagisa chakambosiyiwa, yakatsamira kumabvazuva, kure nemhepo iri kuvhuvhuta, zvichiita kuti nzvimbo iyi ive nemanzwiro anotyisa zvishoma.
Muongorori Andrew Newhouse paPowell's lab ari kutoshanda pane imwe yemiti yakanakisa yemasayendisiti, muti wemusango wechestnut unobva kumaodzanyemba kweVirginia. Muti uyu wakareba mamita angangoita 25 uye unokura mumunda wechestnut wakarongwa zvisina kurongeka wakakomberedzwa nefenzi yemhara yakareba mamita 10. Bhegi rechikoro rakasungirirwa kumigumo yemamwe matavi emuti. Newhouse akatsanangura kuti bhegi repurasitiki remukati rakavharirwa muDarling 58 pollen iyo masayendisiti akanyorera muna Chikumi, nepo bhegi resimbi rekunze rakadzivirira squirrels kubva kumaburrs ari kukura. Kugadzirwa kwese kuri pasi pekutarisirwa kwakasimba neUnited States Department of Agriculture; vasati vabvisa mitemo, mukume kana nzungu kubva mumiti ine majini akawedzerwa majini mufenzi kana murabhoritari yemuongorori dzinofanira kuparadzaniswa.
Newhouse yakashandisa zvigera zvekuchekerera zvinodzoreka pamatavi. Achidhonza netambo, banga rakatyoka uye bhegi rakadonha. Newhouse yakakurumidza kuenda kubazi rinotevera raiva nemabhegi ndokudzokorora maitiro acho. Powell akaunganidza mabhegi akadonha ndokuaisa mubhegi guru repurasitiki, sekunge aibata zvinhu zvine njodzi kumhuka.
Mushure mekudzokera kurabhoritari, Newhouse naHannah Pilkey vakadurura bhegi ndokukurumidza kubvisa nzungu dzebrown kubva mumakwenzi egirini. Vanongwarira kuti vasabvumira minzwa kupinda muganda, inova njodzi pabasa mukutsvagisa chestnut. Kare, vaifarira nzungu dzose dzinokosha dzakagadziriswa majini. Panguva ino, pakupedzisira vaive nedzakawanda: dzinopfuura chiuru. "Tese tiri kutamba mitambo midiki inofadza," akadaro Pirkey.
Masikati iwayo, Powell akaenda nechingwa chetsvete kuhofisi yaNeil Patterson mukamuri rekugamuchira vaenzi. Rakanga riri Zuva reVanhu Vemuno (Columbus Day), uye Patterson, Mutevedzeri weMutungamiriri weESF's Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment, akanga achangobva kudzoka kubva kuchikamu chimwe chete chekampasi, kwaakatungamira kuratidzira chikafu chemuno. Vana vake vaviri nemuzukuru wake vari kutamba pakombiyuta muhofisi. Munhu wese akabvisa manyowa ndokudya nzungu. "Dzichiri girini," akadaro Powell achisuwa.
Chipo chaPowell chine mabasa akawanda. Ari kugovera mbeu, achitarisira kushandisa network yaPatterson kudyara chestnut munzvimbo itsva, kwadzinogona kuwana mukume wakagadziriswa majini mukati memakore mashoma. Akashandawo muhunyanzvi hwekudzidzisa nezve chestnut.
Patterson paakatorwa basa neESF muna 2014, akanzwa kuti Powell aiedza miti yakagadzirwa nemajini, iyo yaive makiromita mashoma kubva kuOnondaga Nation Resident Territory. Iyo yekupedzisira iri musango makiromita mashoma kumaodzanyemba kweSyracuse. Patterson akaona kuti kana chirongwa ichi chikabudirira, majini ekudzivirira zvirwere achapedzisira apinda munyika yacho osangana nemiti yechestnut yasara ipapo, nokudaro achichinja sango rinokosha pakuzivikanwa kweOnodaga. Akanzwawo nezvezvinonetsa zviri kuita kuti varwiri vezvematongerwo enyika, kusanganisira vamwe vanobva munharaunda dzemuno, vapikise zvisikwa zvakagadziriswa majini kune dzimwe nzvimbo. Semuenzaniso, muna 2015, rudzi rweYurok rwakarambidza kuchengetwa kweGMO kuNorthern California nekuda kwekunetseka nezvekugona kusvibiswa kwezvirimwa zvayo uye hove dzesalmon.
“Ndinoziva kuti izvi zvakaitika kwatiri pano; tinofanira kutaura zvishoma,” Patterson akandiudza. Pamusangano weESF we2015 Environmental Protection Agency, Powell akapa hurukuro yakanyatsodzidziswa kuvanhu vemuNew York. Mushure mehurukuro, Patterson akayeuka kuti vatungamiriri vakati wandei vakati: “Tinofanira kudyara miti!” Kufara kwavo kwakashamisa Patterson. Akati: “Handina kuzvitarisira.”
Zvisinei, hurukuro dzakazotevera dzakaratidza kuti vashoma vavo vanoyeuka chaizvo basa rakaitwa nemuti wechestnut mutsika dzawo dzechinyakare. Ongororo yaPatterson yakatevera yakamuudza kuti panguva iyo kusagadzikana kwevanhu uye kuparadzwa kwezvakatipoteredza kwaiitika panguva imwe chete, hurumende yeUS yakanga iri kuita hurongwa hwakakura hwekumanikidza kubvisa vanhu mumiti uye kusanganisa zvirimwa, uye denda rakanga rasvika. Kufanana nezvimwe zvinhu zvakawanda, tsika dzechestnut dzemunzvimbo iyi dzakanyangarika. Patterson akawanawo kuti maonero pamusoro pekugadzira majini akasiyana zvakanyanya. Mugadziri wetsvimbo dzelacrosse dzeOnoda, Alfie Jacques, anoda kugadzira matanda kubva pamuti wechestnut uye anotsigira chirongwa ichi. Vamwe vanofunga kuti njodzi yacho yakakura uye nekudaro vanopikisa miti.
Patterson anonzwisisa maonero maviri aya. Munguva pfupi yapfuura akati kwandiri: “Zvakafanana nefoni nemwana wangu.” Akataura kuti mwana wake ari kudzoka kumba achibva kuchikoro nekuda kwedenda re coronavirus. “Rimwe zuva ndakaedza zvese; kuti varambe vachitaurirana, vari kudzidza. Zuva rakatevera, senge, ngatibvisei zvinhu izvozvo.” Asi makore ekukurukurirana naPowell akaderedza kusava nechokwadi kwake. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, akadzidza kuti vana vepakati vemiti 58 yeDarling havazove nemajini akaunzwa, zvinoreva kuti chestnut dzepakutanga dzemusango dzicharamba dzichikura musango. Patterson akati izvi zvakabvisa dambudziko guru.
Patakashanya muna Gumiguru, akandiudza kuti chikonzero chakaita kuti asakwanise kutsigira zvizere chirongwa cheGM ndechekuti aisaziva kana Powell aine hanya nevanhu vaitaurirana nemuti kana kuti nemuti. "Handizivi kuti chii chaanowana kwaari," akadaro Patterson, achirova chipfuva chake. Akati chete kana hukama pakati pemunhu nemuti wechestnut huchigona kudzorerwa, ndipo panodiwa kuti muti uyu udzokezve.
Kuti izvi zviitike, akati anoronga kushandisa nzungu dzaakapihwa naPowell kugadzira chestnut pudding nemafuta. Achaunza ndiro idzi kunzvimbo yeOnondaga uye achakoka vanhu kuti vaongororezve manakiro adzo ekare. Akati: “Ndinovimba ndizvozvo, zvakafanana nekukwazisa shamwari yekare. Unongoda kukwira bhazi kubva pawakambomira nguva yapfuura.”
Powell akagamuchira chipo chemadhora mamiriyoni matatu nehafu kubva kuTempleton World Charity Foundation muna Ndira, izvo zvichabvumira Powell kufambira mberi sezvaanofamba nemasangano anotonga uye achiwedzera chinangwa chake chekutsvagisa kubva kumajini kusvika kuchokwadi chekugadzirisa kwenzvimbo yese. Kana hurumende ikamupa chikomborero, Powell nevasayendisiti vanobva kuAmerican Chestnut Foundation vachatanga kuibvumira kutumbuka. Mukume nemajini ayo ekuwedzera achafuridzirwa kana kusvuurwa mumidziyo yakamirira yemimwe miti, uye mugumo wechestnuts dzakagadziriswa majini uchaitika zvakazvimirira kubva munzvimbo yekuedza inodzorwa. Tichifunga kuti jini rinogona kuchengetedzwa mumunda nemurabhoritari, izvi hazvina chokwadi, uye richapararira musango - iyi inzvimbo yezvakatipoteredza iyo masayendisiti anoshuva asi vanotya zvakanyanya.
Mushure mekunge muti wechestnut wazorodzwa, unogona kutenga mumwe here? Ehe, akadaro Newhouse, ndizvo zvaive zvakarongwa. Vaongorori vanga vachibvunzwa vhiki rega rega kuti miti inowanikwa riini.
Munyika inogara Powell, Newhouse nevamwe vake, zviri nyore kunzwa kuti nyika yese iri kumirira muti wavo. Zvisinei, kutyaira daro diki kuchamhembe kubva kupurazi rekutsvagisa uchipfuura nepakati peguta reSyracuse kunoyeuchidza kuti shanduko dzakakura dzakaitika sei munharaunda uye munharaunda kubva pakanyangarika machestnuts ekuAmerica. Chestnut Heights Drive iri muguta diki kuchamhembe kweSyracuse. Imugwagwa wekugara wakajairika une nzira dzakafara dzekupinda nadzo, huswa hwakanaka, uye dzimwe nguva miti midiki yekushongedza ine chivanze chepamberi. . Kambani yematanda haidi kuti machestnuts adzoke. Hupfumi hwekurima hunozvimiririra hwakavakirwa pamachestnuts hwanyangarika zvachose. Hapana anotora nzungu dzakapfava uye dzinotapira kubva kumaburrs akaoma zvakanyanya. Vanhu vazhinji vangasatomboziva kuti hapana chiri kushaikwa musango.
Ndakamira ndikaita pikiniki yemanheru pedyo neLake Onondaga pasi pemumvuri wemuti mukuru wemupfudze. Muti wacho wakanga wakazara nemiti yegirini yakajeka yegrey. Ndinoona maburi akagadzirwa nezvipembenene mumakwati. Unotanga kurasikirwa nemashizha awo uye unogona kufa woparara makore mashoma gare gare. Kuti ndiuye kuno kubva kumba kwangu kuMaryland, ndakatyaira nemotokari ndinopfuura zviuru zvemiti yemupfudze yakafa, ine matavi asina chinhu eforogo akasimuka padivi pemugwagwa.
MuAppalachia, kambani iyi yakakwenya miti kubva munzvimbo yakakura yeBitlahua kuti iwane marasha pasi. Mwoyo wenyika yemarasha unoenderana nemoyo wenyika yaimbova chestnut. Sangano reAmerican Chestnut Foundation rakashanda nemasangano akadyara miti pamigodhi yemarasha yakasiyiwa, uye miti yechestnut ikozvino inokura pamaeka zviuru zvenyika yakakanganiswa nenjodzi iyi. Miti iyi ingori chikamu chemiti inosanganiswa inodzivirira bhakitiriya, asi inogona kufananidzwa nechizvarwa chitsva chemiti iyo rimwe zuva inogona kukwikwidzana nemasango makuru ekare.
Muna Chivabvu wadarika, huwandu hwekabhoni dhayokisaidhi mumhepo hwakasvika zvikamu 414.8 pamiriyoni kekutanga. Kufanana nemimwe miti, huremu hwechestnut yekuAmerica husingapfuure mvura hunenge hafu yekabhoni. Zvinhu zvishoma zvaunogona kurima pamunda zvinogona kupinza kabhoni mumhepo nekukurumidza kupfuura muti wechestnut uri kukura. Nekufunga izvi, chinyorwa chakaburitswa muWall Street Journal gore rapfuura chakati, “Ngativei nerimwe purazi rechestnut.”